Chapter 1. Basic Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide you with that minimal amount of information needed to experiment with MDL while reading this document. It is strongly recommended that you do experiment, especially upon reaching chapter 5 (Simple Functions).
1.1. Loading MDL [1]
First, catch your rabbit. Somehow get the interpreter running -- the
program in the file SYS:TS.MDL
in the ITS version or SYS:MDL.SAV
in the Tenex version or SYS:MDL.EXE
in the Tops-20 version. The
interpreter will first type out some news relating to MDL, if any,
then type
LISTENING-AT-LEVEL 1 PROCESS 1
and then wait for you to type something.
The program which you are now running is an interpreter for the language MDL. All it knows how to do is interpret MDL expressions. There is no special "command language"; you communicate with the program -- make it do things for you -- by actually typing legal MDL expressions, which it then interprets. Everything you can do at a terminal can be done in a program, and vice versa, in exactly the same way.
The program will be referred to as just "MDL" (or "the interpreter") from here on. There is no ambiguity, since the program is just an incarnation of the concept "MDL".
1.2. Typing [1]
Typing a character at MDL normally just causes that character to be echoed (printed on your terminal) and remembered in a buffer. The only characters for which this is normally not true act as follows:
Typing $
(ESC) causes MDL to echo dollar-sign and causes
the contents of the buffer (the characters which you've typed) to be
interpreted as an expression(s) in MDL. When this interpretation is
done, the result will be printed and MDL will wait for more typing.
ESC will be represented by the glyph $
in this document.
Typing the rubout character (DEL in the ITS and Top-20 versions, CTRL+A in the Tenex version) causes the last character in the buffer -- the one most recently typed -- to be thrown away (deleted). If you now immediately type another rubout, once again the last character is deleted -- namely the second most recently typed. Etc. The character deleted is echoed, so you can see what you're doing. On some "display" terminals, rubout will "echo" by causing the deleted character to disappear. If no characters are in the buffer, rubout echoes as a carriage-return line-feed.
Typing ^@ (CTRL+@) deletes everything
you have typed since the last $
, and prints a carriage-return
line-feed.
Typing ^D (CTRL+D) causes the current input buffer to be typed back out at you. This allows you to see what you really have, without the confusing re-echoed characters produced by rubout.
Typing ^L (CTRL+L) produces the same effect as typing ^D, except that, if your terminal is a "display" terminal (for example, IMLAC, ARDS, Datapoint), it firsts clears the screen.
Typing ^G (CTRL+G) causes MDL to stop whatever it is doing and act as if an error had occurred (section 1.4). ^G is generally most useful for temporary interruptions to check the progress of a computation. ^G is "reversible" -- that is, it does not destroy any of the "state" of the computation it interrupts. To "undo" a ^G, type the characters
<ERRET T>$
(This is discussed more fully far below, in section 16.4.)
Typing ^S (CTRL+S) causes MDL to throw away what it is currently doing and return to a normal "listening" state. (In the Tenex and Tops-20 versions, ^O also should have the same effect.) ^S is generally most useful for aborting infinite loops and similar terrible things. ^S destroys whatever is going on, and so it is not reversible.
Most expressions in MDL include "brackets" (generically meant) that
must be correctly paired and nested. If you end your typing with the
pair of characters !$
(!+ESC), all currently
unpaired brackets (but not double-quotes, which bracket strings of
characters) will automatically be paired and interpretation will
start. Without the !, MDL will just sit there waiting for
you to pair them. If you have improperly nested parentheses, brackets,
etc., within the expression you typed, an error will occur, and MDL
will tell you what is wrong.
Once the brackets are properly paired, MDL will immediately echo
carriage-return and line-feed, and the next thing it prints will be
the result of the evaluation. Thus, if a plain $
is not so echoed,
you have some expression unclosed. In that case, if you have not typed
any characters beyond the $
, you can usually rub out the $
and
other characters back to the beginning of the unclosed expression.
Otherwise, what you have typed is beyond the help of rubout and
^@; if you want to abort it, use ^S.
MDL accepts and distinguishes between upper and lower case. All "built-in functions" must be referenced in upper case.
1.3. Loading a File [1]
If you have a program in MDL that you have written as an ASCII file on some device, you can "load" it by typing
<FLOAD file>$
where file is the name of the file, in standard operating-system
syntax, enclosed in "s (double-quotes). Omitted parts of the file name
are taken by default from the file name DSK: INPUT >
(in the ITS
version) or DSK: INPUT.MUD
(in the Tenex and Tops-20 versions) in
the current disk directory.
Once you type $
, MDL will process the text in the file (including
FLOAD
s) exactly as if you had typed it on a terminal and followed it
with $
, except that "values" produced by the computations are not
printed. When MDL is finished processing the file, it will print
DONE
.
When MDL starts running, it will FLOAD
the file MUDDLE INIT
(ITS
version) or MUDDLE.INIT
(Tenex and Tops-20 versions), if it exists.
1.4. Errors — Simple Considerations [1]
When MDL decides for some reason that something is wrong, the standard sequence of evaluation is interrupted and an error function is called. This produces the following terminal output:
*ERROR*
often-hyphenated-reason
function-in-which-error-occurred
LISTENING-AT-LEVEL integer PROCESS integer
You can now interact with MDL as usual, typing expressions and having them evaluated. There exist facilities (built-in functions) allowing you to find out what went wrong, restart, or abandon whatever was going on. In particular, you can recover from an error -- that is, undo everything but side effects and return to the initial typing phase -- by typing the following first line, to which MDL will respond with the second line:
<ERRET>$
LISTENING-AT-LEVEL 1 PROCESS 1
If you type the following first line while still in the error state
(before <ERRET>
), MDL will print, as shown, the arguments (or
"parameters or "inputs" or "independent variables") which gave
indigestion to the unhappy function:
<ARGS <FRAME <FRAME>>>$
[ arguments to unhappy function ]
This will be explained by and by.